· Philip II
o Son of Charles V
o Inherited Spain & its possessions
§ Spain
§ Portugal
§ Southern Italy
§ All of the Americas
§ Spanish Netherlands
§ Nominal king of England
§ Claim to French throne through daughter
o Lepanto-victory over Turks-1571
§ Believed this victory signaled he was carrying out God’s will
o Devout Catholic; used gold & silver from new world to launch a counter-reformation instead of investing in Spanish economy
o Spain’s golden age
o Church had growing role in Spanish society; inquisition
o Built Escorial
o Married to Mary, queen of England
§ Mary took throne after Edward
§ Wanted to re-Catholicize England & renew ties with Rome
§ Persecuted Protestants
§ Caused chaos
§ Died 1558
§ Elizabeth ascended to throne after Mary
· Had been locked up by Mary
· Political faction in Parliament wanted Elizabeth to re-establish Anglican faith; Elizabeth would be illegitimate n Catholic faith
· Emphasized Anglicanism as a separate Protestant faith
o 39 Articles-Distinctly Protestant dogma
o Secured Elizabeth’s position
o Maintained aspects of Catholic faith
· Elizabeth didn’t want to marry & give up control; Virgin queen
· Died 1603
· Figure around which modern England formed
o Dutch are afraid of losing autonomy & fear that Phillip’s re-catholicization will interfere with their affairs & economic success
§ Never had independence-always controlled by someone else
§ Flourishing trade
§ 7 northern provinces are Protestant
§ 10 southern provinces Catholic
§ Benefitted from commercial economy
§ Had certain amount of autonomy
§ Feared trade would be axed
§ 1567-Phillip appointed Duke of Alva over provinces
· Sent to straighten out religious trouble with Council of Blood//Troubles
§ Dutch claim Joyeuse Entrée-requires overseer to suspect their autonomy
§ Rebel against Phillip
§ William the Silent
· House of Orange
· Province of Holland
· Worked for Phillip, but saw his actions as big mistake
· Advocated for rebellious activities & lead the rebellious elements
§ Dutch form national identity
§ New World money used to try and squash rebellion
§ Phillip’s actions concerned Elizabeth
· Wanted to use Netherlands as launching point for invasion of England
· Phillip had claim to throne
§ Mary Queen of Scots
· Elizabeth’s French cousin
· Legitimate claim to throne
· Catholic Stuart
· Figure around which Catholics rallied
· Imprisoned by Elizabeth & later beheaded
· Financially & militarily aided Dutch rebellion
§ 1576-Phillip placed new governor general Don Juan, his half-brother & hero of Leponto, in charge of Netherlands-died
§ Prince of Parma succeeds Don Juan
· Offered terms of surrender
o 10 southern provinces agreed to surrender & accept Phillip as king
o 7 northern provinces refuse to surrender-sign agreement that no one will make separate peace-Union of Utrecht-1579
§ Make own declaration of independence as united Netherlands-1581
§ Fighting continues
§ Increasing concern from Elizabeth
§ William the Silent assassinated
o Elizabeth openly supported the Dutch in the 1580’s
§ No navy
§ Unimpressive military
§ Sends ships out too hijack Phillips ships to steal gold
§ Phillip intends to defeat Dutch by invading England
· Puts together larger navy than Lepanto-over 130 ships
· English don’t want to be controlled by foreigners
· Wallsingham, Mary’s advisor, drafted fake letters from supposed Catholics & sent them to her
o Mary signed them & sent them back, proof of treason
o Declared guilty, not permitted to defend herself & executed
· Difficult to organize Armada due to language barriers
· English set fire ships at Armada
· Massive storm swept Armada ships up towards Ireland
· 60 ships made it back to Spain
o Phillip dies in 1598
· Commercial Revolution
o Influx of gold & silver from Americas leads to inflation during the 1500’s & 1600’s
o Population growth
o Price revolution during inflationary period
o Result of High Middle ages; stimulated by Age of Exploration
o Guilds were self-contained in middle ages; after Age of Exploration, commerce could transcend towns
§ Entrepreneurs emerged
· Acquired resources, brought them to be manufactured beforehand
· Took risks
· Could eventually acquire wealth & become bankers
o Ex: Medici family & Fuggers
§ Seeds of pre-Wealth of Nations capitalism
· Domestic system & handicraft industry
o Lending money evolves from being considered a sin to being considered a fact of capitalism
o Trade is taking place
o Nation-based economies emerged
§ More wealth=stronger tax base; monarchs could consolidate power
o Guilds & masters left behind
o Towns tried to protect trades with internal tariffs, which led to conflicts
o Wealth is equated with precious metal; tied into idea that you wanted gold & silver imported
§ To do this, need to export more than you import (mercantilism)
§ Acquire territories around the world to trade with (colonialism)
· Age of Exploration
o Pursued due to:
§ Curiosity
§ Trade & Money
o Era of upheaval
o Italy & Germany were prominent due to waterways & trade
o Middlemen drove up prices of goods from East, & Italians dominated trade due to proximity
o Western Europeans wanted to turn the Atlantic into something comparable to the Mediterranean
o Spain & Portugal sought all-water routes to Asia, specifically India
o Europeans messed up Indian Ocean trade
o Portugal founded trading posts across the Indian Ocean and in Japan
o Spain, through Columbus, discovered ‘New World’
§ Opened up trade
§ Spain established colonial empire
o Treaty of Tordesillas-1494
§ Pope divided world between Spain & Portugal
§ Portugal-Brazil
§ Spain-Peru, Mexico, Philippines
· Rise and fall of Spain
o After Phillip’s death, Spin begins experiencing economic difficulties
o Never invested in economy, too busy fighting Dutch
o Dutch & English become powerful
o 1609-Phillip III agreed to 12 year’s truce with Netherlands
o 1621-30 Year’s War-Spain & Netherlands
§ Dutch blockaded Scheldt during rebellion, cutting off trade in Antwerp
· Amsterdam became financial capital of the world by the end of 1600’s
· Dutch Republic
o Treaty of Westphalia guaranteed freedom from Spain
o Republic, not absolutist
§ Provinces value 7 separate sets of values & pursue own ends
§ When threatened, they combine and become one
o Value religion (Calvinism)
o Mercantile interests & commercial opportunity; Dutch are successful businessmen
§ Emphasize simplicity; don’t flaunt wealth
§ Sole European power in Japan
§ Dutch East India Company formed in 1602
§ Founded Manhattan in 1612
§ Founded West Indi Company in 1621
§ 1652-Settled southern tip of Africa-Afrikaners
o Golden Age of the Dutch Republic lasts from the end of the 1600’s through the 1700’s
§ Highest standard of living in Europe
o Tolerance leads to their success; religion is kept out of the public sphere
o Dutch forming a national identity
o Commercial empire
o Amsterdam is major city
§ Flourished due to the blockade of the Scheldt River, which stunted Antwerp
§ Became financial capital of world
o Bank of Amsterdam
§ Trading
§ Stocks
§ Willing to accept all currencies for exchange-minted Florins at a set weight & value
§ Money stimulated economy
o Well known for shipping & banking
o No proper monarchy; each province has a Stadtholder
§ Holland, Zeeland & Utrecht usually have same Stadtholder
§ When under attack, provinces would choose same person as Stadtholder
o William III
§ Louis XIV became more aggressive at the end of the 1660’s
· Attacked Spanish Netherlands & 3 provinces
§ William became hereditary Stadtholder
§ Archnemesis of Louis
§ Devout Calvinist
§ Married Mary Stuart & became King of England-1689-Glorious Revolution
· Edict of Nantes
o Decreed by Henry VI in 1598
o Protects the rights of French Huguenots
o Have right to practice religion privately
o Huguenots allowed to be part of politics
o Huguenot communities can maintain their own militias
o Overthrown by Louis XIV in 1685
· Thirty Years’ War
o Buildup
§ Hapsburg rulers did not enforce principles of the Peace of Augsburg, which allowed Calvinist states to pop up and let to land scrambles after the deaths of Catholic officials; bishops could convert & keep their territory
§ No religious minority or majority in Holy Roman Empire
§ Habsburgs wanted to centralize authority & retroactively re=enforce rules
· Ecclesiastical reservation
· Wanted to make Holy Roman Empire a modern state
§ Protestant Union formed 1608
· Protestant states turn to Palatinate, a Calvinist state
· Seek help from Dutch & English Protestants
§ Catholic League formed 1609
· Seek help from Spain
§ Ferdinand is in line to become next Holy Roman Emperor
· Devout Catholic
· Wants to consolidate his political authority & re-catholicize empire
§ 1617-Ferdinand appointed King of Bohemia
· Majority of Czechs had converted to Protestantism
· Protestant leaders nervous about is appointment
· Whatever happens in Bohemia is a microcosm of what would happen in all German states
· Ferdinand sent 2 Catholic representatives to Prague to smooth over transition
o Defenestrated upon arrival
· May 23rd, 1618-Defenestration of Prague
o Catalyst of 30 Year’s War
§ Ferdinand crowned Ferdinand II in 1619
o 30 Year’s War
§ German civil war
§ Based on religion
§ Ferdinand’s attempt to consolidate power of Emperor
§ Truly international conflict
o Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)
§ Protestants refuse to accept Ferdinand, tur o Protestant Union leader Frederick of the palatinate
§ Frederick V very ineffective
§ Winter of 1620-Battle of White Mountain-Frederick loses to Ferdinand’s troops
· Frederick mocked as Winter King
· Definitive triumph for Ferdinand
· Frederick refused to accept he lost; insisted he was still king of Bohemia
§ 1625-Czechs defeated & re-catholicized
o Danish Phase (1625-1629)
§ Denmark was Protestant
· Christian IV was emperor
· Claimed to want to help protestants
· Wanted to create state of Schleshvig und Hollstein to give to his son
§ Ferdinand has no national military, so he must hire mercenaries
· Albrect of Wallenstein
o Biggest military figure on Ferdinand’s side
o Loyal on coin
o Brilliant leader
· No provisions or supplies; troops pillage villages, regardless of faith
· Ruthless to German people
§ Christian IV defeated
§ 1629-Edict of Restitution
· All land in Holy Roman Empire secularized since 1555 would be returned to the Church
· Tried to force neutral Protestant princes to convert
· Prolonged the war
· Made Richelieu nervous
o Swedish Phase (1630-1635)
§ French were clandestinely funding Protestants
§ Gustavus Adolphus was king of Sweden
· Major power-wanted Swedish empire n center of Europe
· Claimed to be protecting rights of princes
· Protestant nation
§ Adolphus was the great hero of the Swedes-killed at battle of Lützen in 1632
§ Peace of Prague-1635
· Nullified Edict of Restitution
· Ferdinand agreed to recognize Protestant princes again
§ Wallenstein fought Swedes
· Didn’t like Spanish
· Began to secretly meet with Swedes to come up with peace terms
· Fell out of favor with Ferdinand & was killed due to mutiny
§ By 1635 Germans were done with war
o International Phase (1635-1648)
§ Swedish, French and Spanish all involved
§ French begin openly funding Protestants-want to keep Germany weak
§ Approximately 50 million killed
§ Foreign armies took over fighting in Germany
§ Peasants suffered & starved, even resorting to cannibalism
§ Germany devastated; damage varying from state to state
§ 1640’s-foreign powers realizing war has to end
· Peace of Westphalia
o Peace process to end 30 Year’s War took years
§ Lots of countries had to be represented, leading to nonsensical logistical problems
§ Biggest European conference since the Council of Constance
§ About political powers, borders, geography, & issues of state
§ Spanish agree to recognize the existence of the Dutch
· Ended 80 Year’s Struggle
§ Very vague about territories between France & Holy Roman Empire
§ Emperor could not make laws, impose taxes, recruit military, declare war, sign a peace treaty; Holy Roman Emperor stripped of power
§ Each German prince could make laws, tax, declare war, etc.; each German state was like own independent country
§ Habsburgs held onto title of Holy Roman Emperor & created the Austrian empire
§ No Germany develops
· No German nationality
· Germany is politically soft & fluid
§ English, Dutch & French become powers
§ Richelieu recognized a weak Germany would allow for a strong France
§ Staten System-Europe is a bunch of different states that will fight with each other-not unified like Roman empire
